Perception of advertising by people with different cognitive styles

The perception of advertising messages varies significantly among people with different cognitive styles, which directly affects the effectiveness of advertising campaigns. Research shows that field-dependent individuals are more susceptible to external influence and are more often exposed to advertising. Of particular importance are such stylistic characteristics as impulsivity/reflexivity and rigidity/flexibility of cognitive control. Knowledge of the cognitive-stylistic features of target groups allows you to create advertising that best matches the mechanisms of information perception by different types of consumers, increasing its effectiveness.

Cognitive styles as a psychological phenomenon

Cognitive style is a stable characteristic of how different people perceive, process, and remember information, as well as their preferred way of solving problems. Unlike cognitive abilities measured by intelligence tests, cognitive styles do not indicate the level of intellectual development, but rather individual characteristics of a person’s cognitive activity.

The concept of cognitive style was first used by Alfred Adler to designate a personality characteristic that reflects stable individual features of cognitive processes that predetermine the use of various research strategies. Within the framework of his individual psychology, cognitive style was interpreted as a uniqueness of the individual’s life path, structured by setting and achieving goals.

Gordon Allport further developed this concept, considering cognitive style as an integral system of personality of an instrumental order, including methods and means for achieving goals. Subsequently, the problematic of cognitive styles was studied by K. Studner, G. Witkin and many other researchers.

Cognitive styles characterize the specificity of a particular person’s mindset and the distinctive features of his intellectual behavior. In other words, these are the features of the cognitive sphere and intellectual behavior that manifest themselves in individual differences in perception, analysis, structuring, categorization, and evaluation of what is happening.

An important characteristic of cognitive styles is their bipolarity – each style is described by referring to two extreme forms of intellectual behavior. At the same time, both extreme forms have adaptive significance in the corresponding situations and cannot be assessed in terms of “good” or “bad”.

The nature of cognitive styles is not fully understood. There is evidence of their connection with interhemispheric asymmetry, level of intelligence, temperament properties and motivation of the individual. However, there are grounds to consider cognitive styles as a formation that is formed during life under the influence of sociocultural factors.

Classification and main types of cognitive styles

There are many different classifications of cognitive styles based on such mental processes as analysis, perception, categorization, structuring and evaluation of what is happening. Modern domestic and foreign researchers distinguish up to 20 different types of cognitive styles.

The most frequently encountered cognitive-style parameters in differential psychology are:

Field dependence - field independence

One of the most studied and significant cognitive styles for advertising perception. In a narrow sense, field dependence-field independence is the ability to isolate a simple detail in a complex figure. In a broad sense, it is an indicator of the level of psychological differentiation, that is, the ability to distinguish oneself as an individual in society.

Field-dependent style defines thinking in which the process and result largely depend on the person’s environment. A field-dependent person will pay more attention to the background when perceiving information, and less to details. Such people trust more visual impressions when assessing what is happening and have difficulty overcoming the visible field when it is necessary to detail and structure the situation.

The field-independent style, on the contrary, is characterized by a person’s ability to separate the essential from the inessential in the material. Field-independent people rely on internal experience and easily tune out the influence of the field, quickly and accurately isolating a detail from the integral spatial situation.

It has been empirically proven that field dependence is more characteristic of women, as well as of children whose parents exercise excessive control over their behavior.

Impulsivity - reflexivity

This parameter characterizes a person’s tendency to make decisions quickly or slowly. Impulsive people tend to quickly put forward hypotheses in a situation of uncertainty, with the risk of making a mistake. Reflective people, on the contrary, prefer a slower reaction rate after a thorough analysis of the situation.

All other things being equal, an impulsive buyer requires much less advertising effort to make a purchase than a reflexive one. Advertising-dependent consumers with an impulsive style make their choice quickly, are little interested in detailed information about the product, and are satisfied with a superficial description.

Rigidity is the flexibility of cognitive control

This cognitive style characterizes the degree of subjective difficulty in changing the methods of processing information in a situation of cognitive conflict. Rigid control indicates difficulties in the transition from verbal functions to sensory-perceptual ones due to the low degree of their automation, while flexible control indicates the relative ease of such a transition due to the high degree of automation of these functions.

Analytical - synthetic

This style reflects a tendency to focus on differences in objects, to pay attention to details, as opposed to a tendency to focus on similarities and generalize.

Narrow - wide equivalence range

This parameter characterizes individual differences in the tendency to detail categories of experience (analyticity) or, on the contrary, to globalize them (syntheticity). People with a narrow range of equivalence tend to focus on the differences of objects, paying attention to their details and features. People with a wide range of equivalence prefer to see the similarity of objects, combining them into large categories.

Smoothing - sharpening

In the case of "smoothers", the retention of material in memory is accompanied by its simplification, loss of details, and the loss of certain fragments. On the contrary, in the memory of "sharpeners", specific details of the memorized material are highlighted and emphasized.

Cognitive simplicity - complexity

This style reflects the degree of differentiation and integration of the cognitive sphere. People with a cognitively simple style tend to use simple formal-logical schemes in interpreting and predicting the behavior of others, while representatives of a cognitively complex style are able to create a multidimensional model of a social situation.

Psychological mechanisms of advertising perception

Advertising seeks to influence the psychology of consumers at different levels. Experts distinguish the following levels of psychological impact of advertising:

Cognitive impact

The cognitive component is related to how advertising information is perceived by a person. It includes the analysis of a number of information processing processes, such as sensation and perception, memory, representation and imagination, thinking and speech. Cognitive impact consists of transmitting information perceived by the consumer consciously.

The study of cognitive processes involved in the perception of advertising is very relevant, since one of the main tasks of advertising influence is to highlight the advertised product or service and attract the consumer’s attention to it.

Affective (emotional) impact

Affective impact is necessary to form positive motivation and favorable associations in the consumer. It is addressed to the emotions, experiences and feelings of a person. Emotional advertising is capable of creating and strengthening stable connections between a product and positive emotions.

Suggestive influence (suggestion)

The result of suggestive influence can be conviction obtained without logical proof. Suggestion is a process of influencing the mental sphere of a person, associated with a decrease in consciousness and criticality in the perception of the suggested content.

Conative influence (definition of behavior)

Conative influence consists of stimulating the act of purchase. It is associated with leading the consumer to specific actions desired by the advertiser.

Advertising Impact Formulas

To structure the process of advertising influence, several classic formulas have been developed that describe the sequence of psychological states of the consumer when in contact with advertising:

AIDA

The oldest and most common formula, which can be deciphered as: A – attention, I – interest, D – desire, A – action. According to this model, effective advertising first attracts the consumer’s attention, then arouses interest in the product, creates a desire to purchase it, and finally stimulates the purchase.

ACCA

The ACCA formula includes the following components: A – attention, C – comprehension, C – conviction, A – action. Unlike AIDA, the emphasis here is on rational argumentation of the product’s advantages and convincing the consumer.

DAGMAR

The abbreviation DAGMAR stands for “Defining advertising goals – measuring advertising results”. According to this formula, the act of purchasing goes through the following stages: recognition of the brand of the product – the recipient’s awareness of the quality of the product – psychological predisposition to purchase – the recipient’s purchase.

DIBABA

The formula was proposed by G. Goldman in 1953 and includes: determining the needs and desires of potential buyers - identifying consumer needs with the advertising offer - "nudging" the buyer to the necessary conclusions about the purchase, which are associated with his needs - taking into account the expected reaction of the buyer - causing the buyer to want to buy the product - creating an environment favorable for the purchase.

A model of the probability of conscious information processing

In modern advertising psychology, the probability model of conscious information processing occupies a significant place. According to it, advertising is capable of influencing consumer behavior provided that it corresponds to one of the information processing channels associated with the level of interest in the advertised product.

The model identifies two ways of processing advertising information:

Central way

Involves processing reasoned messages (figures and facts). It requires a person to make significant cognitive efforts to evaluate the advantages and capabilities of the advertised product. Conclusions made as a result of processing information along the central path are stored in memory for a long time and can influence behavior in the future.

Peripheral path

Does not require serious consideration of the received advertising, since a person does not want to get to know the product in detail and makes a choice based on external recommendations, including advertising. Therefore, behavior scenarios chosen through the peripheral path are easily adjusted and are not significant for a person.

Therefore, advertising should contain some details or be as simple as possible, depending on the degree of importance of the result in a person’s life achieved with the help of the purchased product.

The relationship between cognitive styles and advertising perception

Research shows that there is a close relationship between consumers’ cognitive styles and their perception of advertising. A person’s cognitive-style characteristics can be considered as subjective determinants of advertising addiction and as a factor in his or her individual degree of susceptibility to advertising messages.

Cognitive styles and advertising addiction

The phenomenon of advertising addiction as one of the variants of psychological addiction has certain subjective determinants associated with cognitive styles. Research shows that advertising-dependent consumers are more prone to field dependence, rigidity and impulsivity.

Field dependence makes people more receptive to visual images and external stimuli, which form the basis of most advertising messages. Field dependent consumers work to a greater extent with visual images, that is, every day the media provide them with an information product with visual and sound effects, which people of this group are oriented towards.

The correlation between the level of suggestibility and the field dependence-field independence index (r=-0.37) showed that field dependent people are more susceptible to suggestion, which is especially important for advertising influences.

Advertising-dependent consumers are more prone to impulsivity, since the result of the activity is more important to them than the process. The most important thing for them is the purchase of a product, so after viewing an advertisement, they aim to purchase it. All other things being equal, an impulsive buyer requires much less advertising effort to make a purchase than a reflexive one.

Advertising-dependent people are also characterized by rigidity of cognitive control, which makes them more susceptible to stereotypical advertising messages and makes it difficult to critically evaluate advertising information.

Cognitive styles and the effectiveness of different types of advertising

Different formats and types of advertising have different effects on people with different cognitive styles:

1. For field-dependent consumers, advertising with a bright visual series, rich context and emotional images is more effective. Such consumers perceive advertising well, built on the creation of a general impression, atmosphere, mood.
2. Field-independent consumers are more receptive to advertising that contains specific facts, figures, and detailed descriptions of product characteristics. They are able to extract essential information from an advertising message even in the presence of distracting factors.
3. For consumers with an impulsive cognitive style, short, dynamic advertising messages with vivid stimuli that call for immediate action are effective. Such advertising should create a sense of urgency and immediacy in making a decision.
4. Reflective consumers respond better to advertising that provides them with enough time and information to consider their decision. They need logical arguments and the opportunity to weigh the pros and cons.
5. Consumers with rigid cognitive control are more susceptible to the influence of repetitive advertising messages and stable brand images, whereas people with flexible control are more likely to accept innovative, non-standard advertising.

Gender differences in advertising perception taking into account cognitive styles

Research shows significant differences in how men and women perceive advertising, which is partly explained by gender differences in cognitive styles.

Advertising-dependent women are field-dependent, and advertising-independent women are field-independent. The level of field dependence determines advertising dependence in women, since advertising-dependent women work with visual images to a greater extent. They are most often affected by visual and sound effects, so such frequent exposure can lead to field dependence in advertising-dependent women.

Advertising-independent women with field independence rely on internal experience and easily tune out the influence of the field, they quickly and accurately isolate a detail from a holistic spatial situation. In addition, they have a predominantly orientation aimed at their own goal, despite pressure from the outside.

Advertising-dependent men are impulsive, as they are used to acting quickly, without thinking about the consequences. Advertising addiction in men can be associated with the need for recognition and prestige. Advertising influences men when choosing a product that people around them can see: most often these are clothes, shoes, cell phones, accessories, cars.

These gender differences have practical implications for targeting advertising. Advertising aimed at female audiences may be more effective if it uses rich visuals and emotional imagery, while advertising that creates a sense of prestige and status for a product may be more effective for male audiences.

Cognitive Biases in Advertising

Marketers actively use cognitive biases – systematic deviations in perception and thinking caused by subjective prejudices and stereotypes – to create more effective advertising campaigns.

Emotional content and the psychology of trust

One of the key areas is the use of emotional content. Emotions greatly influence our decisions, so brands create stories that evoke strong feelings in the target audience. This helps to better connect with customers and increase their loyalty.

The psychology of trust also plays a big role in advertising. Brands strive to be open and honest, adding customer reviews and successful examples of using their products. This enhances the effect of social proof, when consumers trust the opinions of others more than direct statements from the company.

Application of new technologies

New technologies such as artificial intelligence are significantly changing the way cognitive biases are used in advertising. They help to more accurately identify audiences and offer customized content. By analyzing user behavior, companies can identify which offers are perceived as rare or limited, which increases the desire to buy a product.

Virtual and augmented reality are also changing advertising strategies. These technologies allow consumers to interact with products interactively, creating memorable experiences. The positive emotions people experience are associated with brands, which contributes to long-term relationships.

Examples of successful advertising campaigns taking into account cognitive styles

Successful advertising campaigns actively use knowledge of cognitive styles and consumer psychology to achieve maximum effect. Let’s look at some striking examples:

Coca-Cola’s "Share a Coke" Campaign

The brand replaced the familiar logo on the bottles with names, which created a personalized effect. This move activated a cognitive bias in consumers called the “Reunion Effect,” where people identify with a product by feeling a personal connection. The campaign’s results exceeded expectations, increasing sales by 2% in the U.S. and by more than 4% in other countries.

This campaign worked particularly effectively with field-dependent consumers, for whom the social context and emotional component of the product are important.

Dove «Real Beauty»

This campaign used social proof by featuring non-professional models with a variety of body types and looks. This strategy resonated with the audience, demonstrating that beauty has no standard. By focusing on real feelings and experiences of women, the brand established a deep emotional connection with the audience, which led to a 600% increase in sales over several years.

The campaign appealed to consumers with a field-independent cognitive style, capable of critically evaluating social stereotypes and perceiving non-standard images of beauty.

Nike "Just Do It"

Nike’s campaign relies on cognitive biases to create a “hero” effect in consumers. The brand uses stories of people overcoming adversity and associates them with Nike products. This strategy expands the standards of success, allowing everyone to perceive themselves as part of a larger story. The result is not only a need for athletic shoes, but also a significant increase in brand loyalty – Nike increased its revenue to $37 billion in 2020.

This approach is effective for consumers with an impulsive cognitive style, who tend to make quick decisions under the influence of emotional impact.

Apple and the Principle of Scarcity

Scarcity campaigns, like Apple’s, are also highly effective. Announcements of limited-edition products create a strong desire for the product in consumers by tapping into the cognitive bias of "scarcity." This creates a sense of exclusivity and encourages them to pursue what they want.

This strategy is especially effective for consumers with rigid cognitive control, who tend to fixate on specific goals and brands.

Practical recommendations for creating advertising taking into account cognitive styles

Based on the available research, we can formulate a number of practical recommendations for creating effective advertising that takes into account the cognitive styles of the target audience:

For a field-dependent audience

1. Create advertising with rich visual context, vivid imagery and emotional storytelling.
2. Use social context by showing how the product is used by other people or how it fits into social situations.
3. Focus on the overall impression of the product, rather than on individual technical details.
4. Use emotional triggers and create an atmosphere that resonates with the values and self-identification of the target group.
5. Use recommendations from people who are influential to your audience and testimonials from other consumers (social proof).

For a field-independent audience

1. Provide specific facts, figures and detailed product specifications.
2. Structure the information logically, allowing you to independently analyze the benefits of the product.
3. Avoid excessive emotional tactics and focus on rational arguments.
4. Use a minimalist design that doesn’t distract from the essence of your message.
5. Provide comparative analysis with competing products, highlighting objective advantages.

For audiences with an impulsive cognitive style

1. Create short, dynamic advertising messages with strong incentives.
2. Use calls to immediate action and emphasize the urgency of the offer.
3. Place the product in the context of situations that require a quick solution.
4. Use bright colors, fast frame changes and energetic music in audiovisual advertising.
5. Offer simple and clear terms of purchase, minimizing the number of steps from viewing an advertisement to purchasing a product.

For audiences with a reflective cognitive style

1. Provide comprehensive information about the product, giving the consumer material for analysis.
2. Use logically structured arguments and evidence of the product’s effectiveness.
3. Avoid pressure and allow time to make a decision.
4. Create opportunities to compare different options and variations.
5. Emphasize the long-term benefits of the product rather than instant gratification.

For audiences with rigid cognitive control

1. Use repetitive advertising messages with recognizable brand elements.
2. Maintain consistency in visual and verbal elements of your advertising.
3. Avoid drastic changes in brand positioning or visual identity.
4. Focus on tradition, reliability and time-tested quality.
5. Use advertising formats and distribution channels that are familiar to consumers.

For audiences with flexible cognitive control

1. Experiment with unconventional formats and creative solutions.
2. Create multi-layered messages that can be interpreted in different ways.
3. Use humor, irony and unusual visual solutions.
4. Emphasize the innovation and uniqueness of the product.
5. Change your advertising campaigns while maintaining your core brand values.

Prospects for Research on Cognitive Styles in Advertising

Further research into the relationship between cognitive styles and advertising perception opens up new prospects for the development of marketing strategies and increasing the effectiveness of advertising communications.

Personalization of advertising based on cognitive styles

One of the most promising areas is the development of technologies for the automatic determination of users’ cognitive styles based on their digital behavior. This will allow the creation of personalized advertising adapted to the individual characteristics of the perception and processing of information of each consumer.

Neuromarketing research

The use of neuromarketing research methods such as electroencephalography (EEG), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and eye tracking can provide a deeper understanding of the relationship between cognitive styles and responses to different types of advertising stimuli.

Intercultural studies

Studying cultural differences in the distribution of cognitive styles and their impact on advertising perceptions can help international brands develop more effective strategies for different regions of the world.

Evolution of cognitive styles under the influence of the digital environment

Research into how the digital environment and modern media influence the formation of cognitive styles in new generations of consumers can provide predictions about future trends in advertising perception and help brands adapt their strategies to the changing cognitive characteristics of their audiences.

Knowing the cognitive styles of the target audience provides marketers with a powerful tool for increasing the effectiveness of advertising communications. Field dependence/field independence, impulsivity/reflexivity, rigidity/flexibility of cognitive control and other cognitive styles significantly affect how people perceive, remember and respond to advertising messages.

Successful advertising campaigns take into account the predominant cognitive styles of their target audience and adapt the content, format and distribution channels of advertising in accordance with the peculiarities of information perception by different groups of consumers.

Gender differences in cognitive styles should also be taken into account when creating advertising aimed at a male or female audience. Advertising addiction, as a psychological phenomenon, has a cognitive-style basis, which allows us to predict the susceptibility of different consumer groups to advertising influences.

Cognitive biases related to the peculiarities of perception and processing of information are actively used in advertising to enhance its impact. Understanding the mechanisms of these biases and their connection with cognitive styles allows us to create more targeted and effective advertising campaigns.

The development of new technologies, including artificial intelligence, virtual and augmented reality, opens up new opportunities for applying knowledge about cognitive styles in advertising and marketing. Personalization of advertising messages based on the cognitive characteristics of the consumer is becoming increasingly accessible and effective.